Does land-use and land cover affect vector-borne diseases? A systematic review and meta-analysis

Context: Vector-borne diseases (VBD) are a worldwide public health problem for humans and wildlife. 'Global Change' such as habitat alteration and land-use intensification, biotic exchange, the introduction of invasive alien species, and climate change have all been linked to an increased occurrence of VBDs. Objectives: To evaluate the impact of land-use and land-cover (LULC) on the transmission of VBDs, we conducted a systematic review of the existing literature on the global effects of land use on VBDs. This was followed by a meta-analysis to test the relationship between LULC intensification and infection prevalence. Methods: Overall, 654 articles met our inclusion criteria for the systematic literature review, and 18 studies fulfilled the requirements for the meta-analysis. Results: The systematic literature review identified 162 articles with a total of 2541 data entries on the effect of LULC on VBDs. The majority of the studies were published after 2010, and the spatial distribution of data was biased towards North America and Europe. Overall, 193 different hosts and 144 different vector groups were identified. Avian and human malaria were the most frequently named diseases, with humans and Anopheles mosquitoes the most common host and vector, respectively. Our meta-analysis found that land-use intensity, as well as targets (host and vector), significantly impact the prevalence of VBDs. Tests for both residual heterogeneity and moderators were significant, where lower land-use intensity and vectors were linked to lower VBD prevalence, while medium land-use intensity was associated with higher prevalence. Analysis of the host sub-model supported these findings, with infection prevalence significantly lower in low land-use intensity. Conclusions: The systematic literature review revealed a temporal increase in publications on this topic, with a significant rise since 2007 and uneven distribution of data across countries, with the United States, Spain, and Brazil being the most prominent contributors and identified a wide range of pathogens and hosts involved in VBD systems, with human and avian malaria being the most commonly mentioned diseases. We also show, through a meta-analysis, that LULC intensification affects VBDs infection prevalence. Future studies should incorporate the effects of land-use intensity on vector-borne diseases in diverse ecosystems to inform management strategies and mitigate disease emergence with implications for human, livestock and wildlife health.