Seasonal meteorological forcing controls runoff generation at multiple scales in a Mediterranean forested mountain catchment

Understanding hydrological processes during dry periods in Mediterranean mountain catchments is critical due to the increasing frequency of drought episodes. In this work, we aimed at characterizing the effect of the seasonal variability of meteorological forcing on the hydrological response of a small mountain forested catchment in the Mediterranean region. We analyzed the hydrological response and its timing based on hydrometric and electrical conductivity (EC) data for a year in the nested (0.31–2 km 2 ) Re della Pietra catchment, in Central Italy. We used a soil moisture-based metric to distinguish between wet and dry periods and performed EC-based hydrograph separations during these two periods. The results revealed the important role of seasonality as a meteorological forcing affecting soil moisture, groundwater, streamflow response, and stream event water fractions. Wet and dry periods were distinctly characterized by different streamflow, soil moisture, and groundwater responses. Event water fractions in streamflow also highlight the relevance of the seasonality in the meteorological forcing on runoff generation. Particularly, at the rainfall-runoff event scale, the combination of antecedent soil moisture and precipitation depth controlled the non-linear response of streamflow, groundwater, and different event water fractions in the wet and dry periods. Stream stages and event water fractions also varied across nested spatial scales. Antecedent moisture conditions triggered a faster streamflow response due to higher connectivity along the hillslope in the wet period, with higher event water fractions in the upper sub-catchments (25 %) compared to the lower sub-catchments (15 %). Conversely, in the dry period, higher event water fractions were registered at the outlet (11 %) than at the headwaters (7 %). Time lags between peak flows observed across the nested catchment showed a complex pattern, suggesting the interaction of multiple factors controlling the timing of streamflow peaks in the study area. These findings contributed to improve our mechanistic insights into the elusive seasonal hydrological patterns observed in Mediterranean mountain forested catchments.