Assessment of urban heat island using remote sensing and geospatial application: A case study in Sao Paulo city, Brazil, South America

Urban is a term that describes anything related to cities or densely inhabited places. It is often employed to define the traits, way of life, and problems unique to metropolitan locations. An extensive range of social, cultural, and economic activities may be found in urban regions, also noted for their dense population density and robust infrastructure. Tall buildings, congested streets, well-established public transit systems, and a diversity of residential, commercial, and industrial zones are just a few characteristics that set it different from other cities. The most significant urban environmental issue is urban heat island studies, and cities worldwide are experiencing terrible circumstances due to urbanization, industry, population strain on the transportation system, and climate change. Sao Paulo, Brazil, and South America have experienced rapid urbanization and growth over the past few decades. The city has experienced massive infrastructure expansion, modernization, and higher living standards due to a burgeoning population and a booming economy. Given the challenges this rapid expansion has also produced, such as traffic congestion, environmental problems, and resource demands, a sustainable urban planning approach is necessary for a balanced growth trajectory. The detection of the urban heat island in the Sao Paulo area using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Over four decades, from 1992 to 2022, many components have been researched, including NDVI, NDBI, LST, UTFVI, and UHI. According to NDVI statistics, healthy vegetation was generally (0.86, 0.96, 0.58, and 0.58) in 1992, 2002, 2012, and 2022—continuous declines from 1992 to 2022, as determined by NDVI data. Overall, the NDBI analysis shows little habitation in 1992 and a significant increase by 2022. LST research findings indicate that the land surface temperature was lower in 1992 and much higher in 2022. Because of UTFVI, fewer condition zones were occupied in 1992; over the years, this number grew. Overall data point to UHI covering a sizable area in 2022.