Hydrothermal alteration and its geochemistry of the Xiadian gold deposit, Jiaodong Peninsula, China: Implications for fluid-rock interaction processes and mineral exploration

The interaction between hydrothermal fluids and host rocks, along with associated alteration geochemistry within the Mesozoic Jiaodong gold system, presents significant gaps in our understanding. This study systematically examines the petrographic, mineralogical, and geochemical characteristics of alteration at the Xiadian gold deposit, including comprehensive whole-rock geochemistry analyses, mass balance calculations, and phase equilibria modeling. The alteration history of Xiadian could be divided into four stages. Amid Stage 1, the predominant process involves the replacement of plagioclase by K-feldspar-albite, accompanied by the simultaneous bleaching of amphibolite and associated significant depletion of MgO ( ΔCi/CiO  = −21.2 %) and Fe 2 O 3 (−27.2 %) owing to the decomposition of mafic minerals. Stage 2a involves sericitization of albite and continued mafic mineral decomposition, resulting in the lowest recorded MgO (avg. 0.23 wt%) and Fe 2 O 3 (avg. 0.92 wt%) contents in all alteration lithologies. Stage 2b is characterized by abundant chlorite vein formation, corresponding to the proximal enrichment of MgO (158.1 %) and Fe 2 O 3 (108.2 %), accompanied by aMg2+/(aH+)2 decreased in the fluid. Stage 3, the main stage of gold mineralization, involves chlorite substitution with sericite during quartz-sericite-pyrite (QSP) alteration, suggesting mild acidification of the ore-forming fluid. Insights from phase equilibrium modeling suggest that sulfidation has contributed to gold precipitation, leading to increased f O 2 and reduced f H 2 S (extending into quartz-carbonate alteration of stage 4). Mass balance calculations indicate gold is enriched compared to protolith at all stages, with the most intense enrichment in stage 3. This suggests that hydrothermal fluids at Xiadian were auriferous throughout their evolution. The process may induce fluid modifications, particularly through the dissolution of mafic minerals, more so in mafic mineral-rich rocks (e.g., amphibolite) than in granite, promoting the incorporation of hydrothermal chlorite into the Au system to contribute to sulfidation. Our results provide insights into lithology controls on gold mineralization at Xiadian, indicating that felsic rocks (Linglong granite and quartz porphyry) with lower initial CaO contents often develop K-metasomatism and Au-bearing QSP alteration, while mafic rocks (amphibolite and lamprophyre) with higher CaO contents develop carbonization. This is likely due to the influence of lower CaO contents on alteration minerals, which promote rock porosity, affecting rock deformation, pore-fluid flow, and reacting with wall rocks. Principal component analysis (PCA) results indicate that elements including Au, Ag, As, Bi, W, and Cu are proxies for Au mineralization, suggesting their mobilization and deposition together during the gold mineralization process. This highlights their significance as a proxy for gold exploration.