Equal importance of humic acids and nitrate in driving anaerobic oxidation of methane in paddy soils

Methane (CH 4 ) is both generated and consumed in paddy soils, where anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) serves as a crucial process for mitigating CH 4 emissions. Although the participation of humic acids (HA) and nitrate in AOM has been recognized, their relative roles and significance in paddy soils remain insufficiently investigated. In this study, we explored the potential activity of AOM driven by HA and nitrate, as well as the composition of archaeal communities in paddy soils across different rice growth periods and fertilization treatments. AOM activity ranged from 0.81 to 1.33 and 1.26 to 2.38 nmol of 13 CO 2 g −1 (dry soil) day −1 with HA and nitrate, respectively. No significant differences ( p  < 0.05) were observed between the AOM activity driven by HA and nitrate across the three fertilization treatments. According to AOM activity, the annual consumption of CH 4 was estimated at approximately 0.49 ± 0.06 and 0.83 ± 0.19 Tg for AOM processes driven by HA and nitrate in Chinese paddy soils. Nitrate-driven AOM activity exhibited a positive ( p  < 0.05) correlation with the abundance of the ANME-2d mcr A gene but a negative ( p  < 0.05) correlation with the content of dissolved organic carbon. Intriguingly, HA-driven AOM activity was only correlated positively with the nitrate-driven AOM activity. Soil water content, soil organic carbon, nitrate and nitrite contents were significantly correlated with the relative abundance of methanogenic and methanotrophic archaea. These results identified the potential importance of HA and nitrate in driving AOM processes within paddy soils, providing a comprehensive understanding of the complex microbial processes regulating greenhouse gas emissions from paddy soils.